For most of sperm donation's history, anonymity was the default. Donors were promised confidentiality; recipients were advised to keep the conception secret; and the experience of donor-conceived people — what they wanted, how they felt — was largely an afterthought in the design of the industry.
That has changed. A generation of research, the rise of DNA ancestry testing, and the growing voice of donor-conceived adults have fundamentally shifted the landscape. Today, open-identity donation is the standard at most major US sperm banks — and for good reason.
This guide covers the history of anonymous donation, what the shift to open-identity looks like in practice, what research shows about donor-conceived adults' experiences, how consumer DNA testing has effectively ended "true" anonymity, the current legal landscape, and what research recommends about telling children.
A Brief History of Donor Anonymity
Physician-performed donor insemination began in the United States in the early 20th century. For decades, it was cloaked in secrecy — both from the public and from children born through the process. The prevailing medical and social view held that the less said about donor origins, the better. Many physicians advised couples not to tell their children — or anyone — about how conception occurred.
Donor anonymity was not just a practical arrangement; it was the philosophical cornerstone of the industry. Sperm banks promised donors their identity would never be revealed. Recipients were told this protected their family from unwanted intrusions. The donor-conceived community itself had essentially no organized voice.
This began to change in the 1980s and 1990s as the first large cohort of donor-conceived individuals came of age, sought information, and found themselves running into walls. Many discovered their donor origins by accident — through a family member's disclosure, a medical record, or, increasingly, a DNA test.
The Shift Toward Open-Identity: What Changed
The Donor-Conceived Community Organizes
The Donor Sibling Registry (DSR), founded in 2000 by Wendy Kramer and her donor-conceived son Ryan, became the first large-scale platform connecting donor-conceived half-siblings with each other and, sometimes, with their donors. The DSR now has over 75,000 registered members. Its very existence reflects a reality the industry long ignored: donor-conceived individuals want information, and they will find ways to get it.
Research on Donor-Conceived Adults
A series of studies in the 2000s and 2010s documented what donor-conceived adults actually experienced and wanted. The findings were consistent:
- A significant portion of donor-conceived individuals, particularly those who learned of their origins late or not at all, reported distress — not primarily about the donor conception itself, but about the secrecy, the sense of a fundamental truth being withheld
- Many expressed a strong desire for information about their genetic origins — medical history, identity, the ability to know where they came from
- Those with access to donor identity (through open-identity programs or DNA matching) generally reported positive or neutral experiences upon making contact — contact did not cause confusion about who their "real" parents were
Damian Adams, an Australian researcher and donor-conceived individual, has published extensively on the psychological impact of anonymous donation. His work, along with similar research from Susan Golombok's Cambridge group, has been influential in shaping ASRM's evolution toward supporting open-identity donation.
The "My Daddy's Name Is Donor" Study
The 2010 study My Daddy's Name Is Donor, by Elizabeth Marquardt, Norval Glenn, and Karen Clark, surveyed 485 young adults conceived through sperm donation. Among the findings:
- Nearly two-thirds said their conception was a defining aspect of who they are
- About half said they think about their donor at least a few times per year
- About one-third expressed agreement that "My sperm donor is half of who I am"
- A significant minority reported struggling with their identity in ways connected to not knowing their donor
- Many wanted access to medical history and identifying information
The study was influential partly because it documented the experience not just of people who had problems but of a representative community sample — the range of experiences and desires was wide, but the desire for information was pervasive.
Sperm Bank Policy Evolution
In response to research, advocacy from the donor-conceived community, and market demand, major US sperm banks began shifting in the 2000s. California Cryobank, Fairfax Cryobank, Seattle Sperm Bank, and others introduced open-identity programs. By the mid-2010s, open-identity had become the dominant and then default offering at most major banks. Today, some banks exclusively recruit open-identity donors.
Considering Conception at Home?
For those using donor sperm outside a clinical setting, understanding your donor's identity policies is just as important regardless of how you conceive.
MakeAMom makes reusable at-home insemination kits for individuals and couples trying to conceive outside a clinic — including those using donor sperm. The CryoBaby kit is specifically designed for frozen sperm, which is the format most sperm banks ship in.
Explore home insemination kits at MakeAMom →
How DNA Testing Ended True Anonymity
The single most transformative development in donor conception in the past decade is the consumer DNA testing industry. 23andMe, AncestryDNA, MyHeritage, FamilyTreeDNA, and related services have been taken by over 30 million Americans. The databases grow daily.
The Genealogical Identification Problem
A landmark 2018 paper in Science by Yaniv Erlich and colleagues estimated that 60% of Americans of European ancestry could be identified through third-cousin-or-closer matches in a database of 1.28 million. As databases have grown substantially since then, that percentage has increased dramatically.
What this means practically: a donor-conceived individual who submits a saliva sample to any major DNA testing service will, in most cases, match with genetic relatives — half-siblings, cousins, aunts and uncles. Through collaborative genealogical research, those matches can often be traced back to identify a donor within weeks.
This process — genetic genealogy — has been used by law enforcement to solve cold cases and by donor-conceived individuals and researchers to identify anonymous donors. In some documented cases, researchers have identified anonymous donors using DNA databases without the donors' knowledge or consent.
The Anonymity Illusion
The practical implication is stark: for anyone using a commercially available DNA testing service, anonymous donation is no longer functionally anonymous. A donor registered as "anonymous" in 2005 may be identified by their donor-conceived child's DNA test in 2025.
This does not mean anonymous donation is without meaning — there are still legal distinctions and bank policies that matter — but it does mean that the promise of permanent identity protection cannot be made in good faith.
Donors who registered as anonymous decades ago are increasingly being identified. Some have welcomed contact; others have been surprised or distressed by it. The absence of any framework or preparation for contact — the absence of what open-identity programs provide — can make these encounters more disorienting for everyone involved.
Open-Identity Donation: What It Actually Means
An open-identity (identity-release) sperm donor agrees, at the time of donation, that any donor-conceived individual may request their identifying information (typically name and last known contact details) upon turning 18.
What Open-Identity Does Not Mean
- The donor does not become a legal parent
- The donor does not have visitation rights or obligations
- Contact at 18 is not guaranteed — many donor-conceived individuals choose not to make contact, and contact is purely voluntary
- The donor's identity is not shared with recipients at the time of donation (in most programs)
What Recipients and Donors Can Expect
- Recipients know, when selecting an open-identity donor, that their child will have the option to access donor identity at 18
- Donors can prepare for this possibility — and many appreciate having a framework for potential future contact
- The open-identity structure creates a dignified pathway for donor-conceived individuals who want information, without mandating any relationship
ASRM's Position
ASRM's 2021 Revised Guidelines on Gamete Donation state that programs should offer open-identity donors and that recipients should be counseled about the benefits of open-identity. ASRM does not prohibit anonymous donation but strongly supports movement toward transparency and donor-conceived persons' right to origins information.
Legal Landscape: Sperm Bank Policies and State Laws
The legal framework governing donor anonymity is a patchwork in the United States — unlike several other countries that have enacted national legislation.
No Federal Law on Anonymity
There is no US federal law requiring or prohibiting sperm donor identity disclosure. Donors and recipients are governed by contractual agreements and, increasingly, state law.
State Laws on Donor Anonymity
A growing number of states have considered or enacted legislation addressing donor-conceived persons' rights to their genetic information:
- Washington State enacted legislation in 2011 requiring gamete donors to consent to identity release upon a donor-conceived person's request at age 18
- California has seen multiple legislative proposals addressing donor identity, though as of 2025, binding identity-release legislation has not been enacted
- Several other states have introduced legislation in recent years
The trend is clearly toward greater transparency and donor-conceived persons' rights — consistent with the international direction in countries like the UK, Australia, and the Netherlands, all of which have enacted national identity-release legislation.
Bank Policy Variability
Sperm banks are private entities and set their own policies within applicable law. Some banks:
- Maintain separate anonymous and open-identity donor pools
- Have transitioned all new donors to open-identity
- Allow recipients to contact the bank to request non-identifying information (medical history updates) without triggering full identity release
When selecting a bank, review its policies carefully — including what happens to anonymity guarantees if the bank is acquired by another entity, changes its policies, or is subpoenaed.
What to Tell Children: Research on Disclosure Timing
The question of identity choice connects directly to what families tell their children. Research provides clear guidance here.
Early Disclosure Is Better
Multiple longitudinal studies from Susan Golombok's Cambridge group, as well as independent research, consistently show that children who are told about their donor conception from early childhood — in age-appropriate language from toddlerhood — demonstrate:
- No difference in psychological wellbeing compared to naturally conceived peers
- No difference in family relationship quality
- Better outcomes on identity measures than those told late
- Less distress about the information itself (compared to those who find out in adolescence or adulthood)
The mechanism is well understood: when donor conception is simply part of a child's family story from the beginning, it is integrated naturally into their identity. When it is discovered or disclosed late, it can feel like a betrayal of trust — and the distress is often about the secrecy, not the biological reality.
How to Talk to Young Children
ASRM and the donor-conceived community support the "donor story" approach: simple, age-appropriate narrative that normalizes the family's origin story. For a single mother by choice: "We wanted a baby very much. A kind man donated a tiny seed that helped start you." For a same-sex couple: "You have two moms/dads. We needed a little piece of DNA from a donor to grow you." Books like The Pea That Was Me series and Zara's Big Secret offer accessible language for different family structures.
The Identity Question at Adolescence
Adolescence is a developmental stage marked by identity formation — and donor-conceived teens often revisit questions about their origins with new intensity. Early disclosure means this is a continuation of a known narrative, not a revelation. Teens who have always known their origins report processing it as part of normal identity exploration rather than a crisis.
Anonymous Donors in the DNA Age: A Practical Note for Families
Even if you have selected an anonymous donor, your child may identify the donor through DNA testing when they are older. Families can prepare for this by:
- Maintaining whatever non-identifying information the bank provides (medical history updates, donor profile documents)
- Being open to discussing donor conception as the child grows
- Considering registering on the Donor Sibling Registry so that if half-siblings are found, there is a known context for connection
Choosing Open-Identity Even in an "Anonymous" Program
Some programs or banks with anonymous options allow recipients to choose an open-identity framework within their family — regardless of what the bank's policies guarantee. This means:
- Telling your child about their donor conception early
- Maintaining and sharing whatever information you have
- Being open to future DNA-led discovery
You cannot unilaterally make an anonymous donor open-identity — the donor's own policy governs what identifying information can be shared — but you can shape how your child understands and processes their origins within your family.
Key Takeaways
- Anonymous donation was the historical default but has given way to open-identity as the standard
- Consumer DNA testing has effectively ended functional anonymity for most donor-conceived individuals
- Research consistently shows donor-conceived adults want access to origins information and are better served by it
- Open-identity donation provides a framework for potential future contact without mandating any relationship
- ASRM supports open-identity donation and early disclosure to children
- State laws are trending toward donor-conceived persons' rights to identity
- Early, age-appropriate disclosure is associated with better outcomes for children and families
Frequently Asked Questions
Q: Is anonymous sperm donation truly anonymous in 2025? A: Functionally, no. Consumer DNA testing services like 23andMe and AncestryDNA have been taken by over 30 million Americans, and a 2018 Science paper estimated that 60% of Americans of European ancestry could be identified through third-cousin-or-closer database matches. A donor-conceived individual submitting a saliva sample can typically identify their donor through genetic genealogy within weeks, regardless of what a sperm bank's anonymity policy states.
Q: What does open-identity donation actually mean in practice? A: An open-identity donor agrees at the time of donation that any donor-conceived individual may request their identifying information — typically name and last known contact details — upon turning 18. The donor does not become a legal parent, has no visitation rights, and contact at age 18 is purely voluntary. The open-identity structure creates a dignified pathway for donor-conceived individuals who want information without mandating any relationship.
Q: What does research show about telling children early about their donor conception? A: Multiple longitudinal studies from Susan Golombok's Cambridge group consistently show that children told about their donor conception from early childhood in age-appropriate language demonstrate no difference in psychological wellbeing or family relationship quality compared to naturally conceived peers. Those told late — in adolescence or adulthood — show more distress, typically about the secrecy rather than the biological reality itself.
Q: What is ASRM's position on anonymous versus open-identity donation? A: ASRM's 2021 Revised Guidelines on Gamete Donation state that programs should offer open-identity donors and that recipients should be counseled about the benefits of open-identity. ASRM does not prohibit anonymous donation but strongly supports transparency and donor-conceived persons' rights to origins information.
Q: What states have laws protecting donor-conceived persons' right to their genetic information? A: Washington State enacted legislation in 2011 requiring donor identity release upon a donor-conceived person's request at age 18. The trend is clearly toward greater transparency, consistent with international direction — the UK, Australia, and the Netherlands have all enacted national identity-release legislation. Several other US states have introduced similar legislation in recent years.
To learn more about selecting a sperm donor, including bank evaluation and profile review, see our Sperm Donor Selection Guide. For LGBTQ+ family-building contexts, see the LGBTQ+ Fertility Options Guide.
This article is for informational purposes only and does not constitute medical or legal advice. Consult a reproductive attorney for guidance on donor agreements and your state's legal landscape.
